Abstract:

There have been numerous studies examining the effects overtraining can have on mood, more specifically mood disturbances. Many researchers believe that when an athlete, more specifically endurance swimmers, is exposed to overtraining there is a clinically significant reduction in vigor and increases in tension, depression, anger, fatigue, and confusion. The intent of the following paper is to examine, compare, and contrast studies that have validified the effects overtraining has on mood disturbances in endurance swimmers.

Introduction:

The Overtraining Syndrome is a condition in which there is a marked decrease in performance and a general physiological and psychological breakdown in the athlete; and is the result of excess volume and intensity in resistance and cardiovascular training.

Overtraining, often times referred to as overreaching, is necessary to see improvements in athletic performance. Initially, overtraining produces temporary decreases in performance, but if followed by an adequate recovery period, yields “super-compensation and improvement in performance” (Budgett, 1998). In certain instances, overtraining exceeds the capabilities of the athlete and results in overtraining syndrome. According to research, the majority of overtraining syndrome cases occur with endurance athletes, athletes involved in endurance running, swimming, and cycling; rather than sprinters and athletes involved in power training. This is likely due to the nature of the training cycles for each sport (macro and micro-cycles of training) and the amount of recovery allowed between each training session (Budgett, 1998). Recent research has revealed that in elite endurance runners 64% of female and 66% of male runners have experienced overtraining syndrome during their athletic careers (Morgan, Brown, Raglin, et al., 1987). There have also been studies revealing the similarities between depression and overtraining syndrome revolving around common symptoms such as changes in neurotransmitters, immune responses, and hormones. With proper psychological monitoring during training sessions of increased volume and intensity, mood disturbances can be detected and there is the potential to detect an individual’s susceptibility and prevent overtraining syndrome (Morgan, Brown, Raglin, et al., 1987).

Research Review: Methods and Results

There have been many studies researching the affects of overtraining on mood disturbances. Morgan, Brown, Raglin, et al. examined the mood disturbances of approximately 200 male and 200 female competitive swimmers before, during, and immediately following a competitive season, during a 10 year period. They hypothesized that mood disturbances are directly related to the intensity of exercise and demonstrate that mood disturbances increase in a dose-response manner as training intensity increases and that mood disturbances return to baseline levels when training intensity is reduced, using the Profile of Mood States (POMS) questionnaire (Morgan, Brown, Raglin, et al., 1987). They also propose that the continuous monitoring of mood disturbances can reveal an individual’s susceptibility to overtraining syndrome and can help prevent overtraining syndrome.

Budgett demonstrated that using the POMS identified a reduction in vigor and increases in tension, depression, anger, fatigue, and confusion in athletes experiencing overtraining. He also suggested a similarity between major depression (MD) and overtraining syndrome. Similarities between the two conditions include changes in neurotransmitters, immune responses, and hormones (Budgett, 1998).

Morgan, Brown, Raglin, et al. also did another study on the mood disturbances in competitive swimmers. They administered the POMS, muscle soreness scale, and a 24 hour history questionnaire to 12 male competitive swimmers before each practice, and increased the intensity of training, maintaining a VO2max of approximately 94%, during a 10 day training program. Of the initial 12 subjects, 3 were unable to maintain the training volumes. Results indicate that when intensity was increased from 4,000 to 9,000 meters per practice there was a significant increase in muscle soreness, depression, anger, fatigue, and overall mood disturbances as well as a decreased sense of well-being (Morgan, Brown, Raglin, et al., 1988). It is apparent in this study that the affects of overtraining syndrome can be simulated during an intense micro cycle, although this was not the intended attempt of the study.

Pierce studied 12 male and 17 female collegiate swimmers over the course of a six month season and monitored the disturbances in mood brought on by overtraining via the POMS, which was administered biweekly. The results from the study correlate with the previous studies discussed, and indicate mood disturbances among endurance swimmers are related to the increases and decreases in training intensity and volume; however results from this test do not suggest there is an increase in the occurrence of depression (Pierce, Jr., 2002).

Goss examined the relationship between mood disturbances and overtraining, with a special emphasis on the personality trait hardiness. Hardiness is a personality trait composed of three components referred to at the three C’s: commitment, control, and challenge. Individuals who possess hardiness are able to transform stressful life events into less stressful forms by altering their view of the stressor (Goss, 1994). The subjects included 253 swimmers from eight universities and seven competitive swimming programs. These subjects were given the Cognitive Hardiness Inventory, the POMS, the Everly Coping Scale, and the Marlowe-Crowne Social Desirability Scale at the beginning of the competitive season and at two, seven week intervals. It was determined that endurance swimmers who were considered “hardy” experienced fewer mood disturbances when training intensity and volume were increased, compared to “non-hardy” swimmers who did experience significant disturbances in mood following an increase in training (Goss, 1994). All swimmers in this study did exhibit mood disturbances ranging from an increase in feelings of fatigue and decreased feelings of vigor, all at the same time exhibiting an increase in global mood disturbances.

Conclusions and Analysis:

All studies revealed that overtraining contributes to mood disturbances observed during increases in training intensity and volume; they do however admit that the changes observed are not considered clinically significant. Two studies, one by Pierce and one by Morgan, Brown, Raglin, et al., are limited in the fact that there were only a few subjects studied and that the subjects knew of the test and the end date of the test, which could have lead to discrepancies in the results observed (Morgan, Brown, Raglin, et al., 1988). It was observed that mood disturbances included an increase in tension, anger, depression, fatigue, confusion, and global mood; and a decrease in vigor. It was also observed that swimmers who possessed the hardiness trait did not develop significant mood disturbances compared to those swimmers who were classified as "non-hardy" (Goss, 1994).

Recommendation:

All these studies highlight the importance of individual differences in response to increased training intensities. Goss and Pierce refer to the studies performed by Morgan, Brown, Raglin, et al. and agree that mood disturbances do occur when athletes are involved in overtraining. Previous studies have focused on the physiological markers associated with overtraining, but with these studies it is evident that more emphasis should be placed on the psychological markers of overtraining syndrome; as it is obvious that monitoring of mood states can predict an individual’s susceptibility of overtraining syndrome and detect the early onset of overtraining.

It is also apparent that more research should be conducted to determine specific personality constructs which can distinguish which individuals are more susceptible to overtraining syndrome and mood disturbances (Goss, 1994).

Bibliography:

Budgett, R. (1998). Fatigue and underperformance in athletes: the overtraining syndrome . British Journal of Sports Medicine, 32, 107-110.

Goss, J. D. (1994). Hardiness and mood disturbances in swimmers while overtraining. Journal of Sport and Exercise Psychology, 16(2), 135-149.

Morgan WP, Brown DR, Raglin JS, et al. (1987). Psychological monitoring of overtraining and staleness. British Journal of Sports Medicine, 21, 107-114.

Morgan WP, Costill DC, Flynn MG, et al. (1988). Mood disturbance following increased training in swimmers. Med Sci Sports Exerc, 20, 408-414.

Pierce, Jr., EF. (2002). Relationship between training volume and mood states in competitive swimmers during a 24-week season. Perceptual and Motor Skills, 94(3), 1009-1012.