Fundamentals

• Backpacking and camping skills: e.g. starting a fire, using tents, operating a mountain stove.
• Boots: well-fitted hiking boots. Cold weather, snow, and ice conditions require more insulated boots or special mountain climbing boots designed for crampons.
• Weather prediction: reading clouds and barometer. Temperature drops 3-5 degrees for every 1000 foot elevation gain. Stay away from ridges and get down mountain during thunderstorm.
• Physical condition: Adequate cardiovascular and weight training. Stairclimbing.
• Know when to stop or turn back.
• General travel speed up a mountain is 1 hour per 1000 feet. Descent rates are about 2000 to 2500 feet per hour.
• Objective dangers: lightning, rain, hail, snow, ice, falling rock, falls, injuries, poor visibility, difficult terrain, altitude sickness, cold or heat.
• Subjective dangers: fatigue, indecision, disorientation, hunger, fear, lack of knowledge.

Mountain walking

1. Keep foot flat on ground.
2. Straighten leg completely at each step.
3. Lock knee momentarily.
4. Keep the back straight and weight over balls of feet. Do not lean into the mountain.

Grassy slope

Ascent

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    • Place feet on flat spots above clumps of grass.
    • Climb on traverse and switch back.
    • Change direction: keep lower foot pointed forward, place upper foot pointed in new direction in the herringbone position.
    • Short steep pitch can be climbed straight up in herringbone (toes pointed out) position.

Descent

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    • Traverse in a fast walk or jog.
    • Hop skip with weight on downhill foot using uphill foot for balance.
    • Keep momentum under control.
    • Straight down technique: lean back, dig in heels, and control pace. A slow skip is helpful.

Scree: loose gravel and small rocks

Ascent:

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    • Use mountain walking technique but dig in toes of upper foot.
    • If everyone in group steps in same spot, stairs will be formed.
    • Keep distance between climbers to avoid being hit by falling rocks.

Descent

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    • Use the hop-skip technique on traverses.
    • Straight down is preferred.
    • Keep knees bent and hands low.
    • Dig in the heels and hop in low bounds.

Talus: Medium to boulder size rocks lying loose over hard ground.

Ascent and descent:

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    • Always step on uphill side of rock.
    • Exercise care and control when moving around rocks.
    • Use hands for balance.
    • Foot placement is very important.

Other situations

• Low-angle rock (40-60 degrees): No climbing ropes needed.
• High angle rock: Require careful study and expert climbing with ropes and a trusted partner.
• Slab rock: smooth rock of various steepness. As long as below 45 degrees a dry, slap can be climbed just by walking on the rock.

Snow conditions

• Glacier: Snow and ice condition that often requires maneuvering through chunks of ice. An ice axe, ladder, crampons, are common equipment. Use care because many crevasses are covered by snow bridges.
• Powder: Deep light snow. Very difficult to move through. Requires snow shoes and should be avoided if possible.
• Ice climbing: Requires use of two ice picks and crampons.

Self-arrest:

• Goal is to get in a position with face down and head uphill.
• Hold ax with thumb under the adze and fingers over the pick and the other hand on the shaft just above the spike.
• Pick is pressed into the snow just above your shoulder so that the adze is near the angle formed by the neck and shoulder.
• Shaft crosses your chest diagonally and is held close to the opposite hip.
• Keep head down and arch back to force weight onto adze, toes, and knees. If crampons are on, keep them off the ice to avoid flipping over or around.
• Act fast.

Roped travel: Use roped travel with inexperienced climber, high winds, low visibility, hidden crevasses, and very steep slopes.

Avalanche protection

• Look for steep slopes and avoid avalanche prone places.
• Know conditions that lead to avalanche.
• Have a beacon.
• Carry a probe.
• Carry a snow shovel.
• While consumed in an avalanche attempt to swim and stay on top.